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Ali ibn Abi Talib عَلِيّ بْنُ أَبِي طَالِب

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The fourth of the Rightly Guided Caliphs (r. 35–40 AH / 656–661 CE), cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet ﷺ, husband of Fatimah, father of Hasan and Husayn, and the first male child to embrace Islam.

Overview

ʿAli ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: عَلِيّ بْنُ أَبِي طَالِب) was the fourth of the four al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāshidūn (Rightly Guided Caliphs), succeeding ʿUthman ibn ʿAffān in 35 AH (656 CE) and ruling for nearly five years until his assassination in 40 AH (661 CE). He was the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ — son of the Prophet's ﷺ paternal uncle Abu Ṭālib, and husband of the Prophet's ﷺ youngest daughter Fāṭimah, with whom he had five children including al-Ḥasan and al-Ḥusayn — through whom the Prophet's ﷺ direct lineage continues.

ʿAli is the first male child to embrace Islam (some scholars place him a few days after the first adult male, Abu Bakr; the matter is decided by a definition of "child" vs. "adult"). He was raised in the Prophet's ﷺ household from age six, accompanied him through every major event, and is one of the al-ʿAsharah al-Mubashsharūn bi-l-Jannah — the ten Companions promised Paradise during their lifetimes (Sunan Abi Dawud 4649, graded Sahih by al-Albani).

His honorifics are many: Amīr al-Muʾminīn ("Commander of the Believers", his caliphal title), Asad Allāh ("Lion of Allah"), Abu Ḥasan (his kunya), and Abu Turāb ("Father of dust", a tender nickname given by the Prophet ﷺ when he found ʿAli sleeping in the dust at the Masjid). His caliphate was overshadowed by the First Fitna — the civil discord that began with the assassination of ʿUthman — but his contributions to Islamic jurisprudence, his military bravery (he was the standard-bearer of the Prophet ﷺ at Khaybar in 7 AH and many other engagements), and his rank as one of the most knowledgeable Companions are universally affirmed in Sunni tradition.

Lineage and conversion

ʿAli was born in the Kaaba in Mecca around 600 CE — making him approximately 30 years younger than the Prophet ﷺ. His father Abu Ṭālib was the Prophet's ﷺ paternal uncle and lifelong protector; his mother Fāṭimah bint Asad was an early Muslim woman who joined the Hijra to Medina. ʿAli accepted Islam at age ten, immediately upon being invited by the Prophet ﷺ, and is therefore considered the first male child Muslim. He was raised in the Prophet's ﷺ household, the Prophet ﷺ having taken him in to ease the burden on Abu Ṭālib who had a large family.

Quranic references

  • Surah Aal Imran 3:61 — the verse of Mubāhalah: Allah commands the Prophet ﷺ to call to the Christian delegation of Najran for a mutual imprecation; he came forth with ʿAli, Fāṭimah, al-Ḥasan, and al-Ḥusayn (Sahih Muslim 2404).
  • Surah Al-Insan 76:5–22 — Classical commentators (Ibn Kathir on this verse) link the description of those who give food despite their love for it to ʿAli, Fāṭimah, and their household's charity during a period of fasting.
  • Surah Al-Mā'idah 5:55 — "Your guardian (waliyy) is none but Allah and His Messenger and those who believe — those who establish prayer and give zakat while they are bowing"; some classical commentators (al-Ṭabari, al-Razi) link this to an incident in which ʿAli gave a ring while bowing in prayer.
  • Surah Al-Ahzab 33:33 — the verse of Taṭhīr: Allah's purification of the People of the Household; Sahih Muslim 2424 records the Prophet ﷺ covering ʿAli, Fāṭimah, al-Ḥasan, and al-Ḥusayn under his cloak when this verse was revealed.

Role during the Prophet's ﷺ life

  • Slept in the Prophet's ﷺ bed on the night of the Hijra — wrapped in the Prophet's ﷺ cloak — to deceive the Quraysh assassins who had surrounded the house.
  • Migrated to Medina days later, returning the trusts the Prophet ﷺ had been keeping for his Meccan neighbours (the Prophet ﷺ was called al-Amīn — many polytheists still left valuables with him for safekeeping).
  • Married Fāṭimah in 2 AH; they had five children: al-Ḥasan, al-Ḥusayn, Muhsin (who died in infancy), Zaynab, and Umm Kulthum.
  • Fought at Badr (2 AH), Uhud (3 AH), the Trench (5 AH) — where he killed ʿAmr ibn ʿAbd Wudd in single combat — Khaybar (7 AH) where he carried the standard and conquered the fortress, the Conquest of Mecca (8 AH), and Tabuk (9 AH, when the Prophet ﷺ left him in charge of Medina).
  • Was sent as the Prophet's ﷺ representative to Yemen (10 AH) to teach Islam and adjudicate disputes.
  • Was one of the scribes of revelation; memorised the entire Quran in the Prophet's ﷺ lifetime.

The caliphate (35–40 AH)

After the assassination of ʿUthman, the Companions in Medina pledged allegiance to ʿAli. His caliphate was consumed by the consequences of the First Fitna:

  • The Battle of the Camel (Jumāda al-Akhirah, 36 AH) — a battle near Basra against forces led by ʿĀʾishah, Ṭalḥah, and az-Zubayr, who sought retribution for ʿUthman's death before pledging to ʿAli. The battle was fought; ʿAli prevailed; ʿĀʾishah was returned to Medina with full honour.
  • The Battle of Ṣiffīn (37 AH) — against the Syrian army of Muʿāwiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, who refused to pledge allegiance until ʿUthman's killers were brought to justice. The battle ended in arbitration that did not resolve the conflict.
  • The Khawārij split — a faction left ʿAli's army after the arbitration, declaring all parties disbelievers; ʿAli fought them at the Battle of Nahrawan (38 AH).

ʿAli moved his capital from Medina to Kufa during these years; his administration emphasised judicial precedent, the appointment of qualified governors, and continued the systems established by ʿUmar.

Famous hadith on ʿAli

Saʿd ibn Abi Waqqāṣ reported that the Prophet ﷺ said to ʿAli, when leaving him in charge of Medina at Tabuk: "You are to me as Hārūn (Aaron) was to Mūsā — except that there is no prophet after me." — Sahih al-Bukhari 4416; Sahih Muslim 2404
Sahl ibn Saʿd reported the Prophet ﷺ said on the eve of Khaybar: "Tomorrow I will give the standard to a man through whom Allah will grant victory, and who loves Allah and His Messenger, and is loved by Allah and His Messenger." The Companions spent the night wondering. The next morning the Prophet ﷺ asked: "Where is ʿAli?" They said: "His eyes are sore." The Prophet ﷺ called him, applied his saliva to his eyes, and gave him the standard. ʿAli conquered Khaybar. — Sahih al-Bukhari 3009; Sahih Muslim 2406
Buraydah reported the Prophet ﷺ said: "Whoever I am his mawlā (master / patron / friend), then ʿAli is his mawlā." — Musnad Aḥmad 19302; Jami at-Tirmidhi 3713 (graded Sahih by al-Albani)

Death

ʿAli was assassinated on 19 Ramadan, 40 AH (28 January 661 CE), struck with a poisoned sword by ʿAbd ar-Raḥman ibn Muljam, a Khārijī, while leaving the Masjid in Kufa for the Fajr prayer. He died two days later, aged about 60. The Sunni and Shīʿī majority view places his burial in Najaf, Iraq, where the Imam ʿAli Mosque now stands. (A few classical reports place his secret burial elsewhere, but Najaf is the universally-recognised site of veneration.)

His son al-Ḥasan succeeded him for a few months, then abdicated to Muʿāwiyah for the sake of community unity (fulfilling the Prophet's ﷺ prediction in Sahih al-Bukhari 2704: "This son of mine is a leader, and through him Allah will reconcile two great parties of Muslims"). Al-Ḥusayn would later be martyred at Karbala in 61 AH (680 CE).

Legacy and significance

ʿAli is venerated by Sunnis as the fourth Rightly Guided Caliph and one of the most knowledgeable Companions. He is venerated by Shīʿah as the first Imam and the rightful immediate successor to the Prophet ﷺ. The Sunni position, articulated in al-Ṭaḥāwiyyah and al-Wāsiṭiyyah, is that the Companions ranked Abu Bakr → ʿUmar → ʿUthman → ʿAli — but that ʿAli's rank as the fourth caliph and one of the foremost knowers of the Prophet's ﷺ Sunnah is unimpeachable.

Among his preserved sayings: "People are asleep; when they die, they wake up." A volume of his sermons, letters, and aphorisms — Nahj al-Balāghah — was compiled by ash-Sharīf ar-Raḍi in the 4th/10th century, though many of its contents have isnad concerns; classical Sunni scholars use it cautiously, treating only those parts with authentic chains as evidence.

See also

References

  1. The Quran (Sahih International translation): Surahs Aal Imran 3:61; Al-Mā'idah 5:55; Al-Ahzab 33:33; Al-Insan 76:5–22.
  2. Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith nos. 2704, 3009, 4416. Trans. M. Muhsin Khan.
  3. Sahih Muslim, hadith nos. 2404, 2406, 2424. Trans. Abdul Hamid Siddiqui.
  4. Jami at-Tirmidhi 3713; Sunan Abi Dawud 4649 — graded Sahih by al-Albani.
  5. al-Suyuti, Tarīkh al-Khulafāʾ, chapter on ʿAli.
  6. Ibn Kathir, al-Bidāyah wa-an-Nihāyah, vol. 7.
  7. al-Dhahabi, Siyar Aʿlām an-Nubalāʾ, vol. 3 — life of ʿAli.
  8. al-Ṭabari, Tārīkh ar-Rusul wa-l-Mulūk, vols. 5–6.
  9. Ali Muhammad as-Sallabi, ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭālib: His Life and Times (trans. Darussalam).